The Environment of Crisis on the Nigerian Educational System

Comparative Education Volume 33 No. 1 1997 pp. 87 ± 95 The Environment of Crises in the Nigerian Education System CORDELIA C. NWAGWU ABSTRACT The Nigerian education system witnessed tremendous expansion between independence in 1960 and 1995. However, the rate declined after 1986 when economic depression resulted in the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programme. A population explosion, frequent changes in the government due to military coups, a depressed economy and unplanned and uncontrolled educational expansion all created an environment of crisis in the education system.The crises included those of poor funding, inadequate facilities, admission and certi ® cate racketeering, examination malpractices, general indiscipline and the emergence of secret cults. Personnel management problems resulted in frequent strikes and closures and the abandonment of academic standards. The thesis is that any society which stimulates the uncoordinated growth of its education system and then fails to provide the necessary dedicated teachers, teaching and learning facilities and operating funds for staff and student welfare services, is creating an environment within which all types of problems and crises will ? urish. Lessons for other developing nations include the need for democratically elected stable governments instead of military regimes and better planning, funding and management of the education system. The National Policy on Education (NPE) It is necessary to examine brie? y the present system of education and its immediate past in order to appreciate the nature, causes and magnitude of the different types of crises in the system.The National Policy on Education (NPE) popularly referred to as the 6-3-3-4 system, was introduced in 1977 and then revised in 1981 (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981). It marked a radical departure from the British system of education which Nigeria inherited at independence in 1960. Basically it adopted the American system of 6 years of primary education, 3 years of junior secondary school, 3 years of senior secondary school, and 4 years of university education. Primary education is free, but not compulsory.Junior secondary education is supposed to be free, but it is not yet so in any of the 30 states in the federation. The transition from primary to junior secondary education was planned to be automatic but many states conduct competitive entrance examinations since the available junior secondary schools cannot accommodate all the aspirants. A major emphasis in the NPE is the teaching of pre-vocational subjects to all students at the junior secondary level. The learning of Nigerian languages is also compulsory at the primary and secondary school levels.Much more attention is being paid to women’ s education and the teaching of science, technical and vocational subjects at the senior secondary and tertiary levels. Although many policy documents support decentralisation of the system of administratio n, there is an ever-increasing tendency towards centralisation of Correspondence to: Cordelia C. Nwagwu, Institute of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. 0305-0068/97/010087-09 $7. 00 O 1997 Carfax Publishing Ltd 88 C. C. Nwagwu ducational control especially as the federal government is called upon to assume a greater role in the funding of the education system at all levels. During the 1993 ± 1994 academic year, there were 38,254 primary schools, 5959 secondary schools, 55 colleges of education, 45 polytechnics and colleges of technology and 35 universities in Nigeria. Though some critics consider the above statistics inadequate for a country with approximately 100 million people, the number of institutions represents a phenomenal rate of expansion of the education system between 1960 and 1993.Indeed, at independence there was only one university college, one college of technology, no colleges of education (only 280 low-level teacher training colleges) and 443 se condary schools (Fafunwa, 1974). It is generally acknowledged that the system has developed quantitatively, but it lacks many of the ingredients needed for qualitative growth. The problems in the Nigerian education system which have reached crisis dimensions are direct consequences of the rapid, unplanned, uncontrolled and uncoordinated expansion of the system. Contextual and Theoretical FrameworkNigeria has been politically independent for the past 35 years. During this period, a democratically elected civil government has only been in power for 10 years. The remaining 25 years have witnessed military rule by different military regimes which seized power in military coups. All over the world, military regimes, which although they claim to be a corrective intervention, are usually seen as an aberration since they govern by force and not by the wish of the people. They tend to be unpopular, undemocratic, dictatorial, corrupt and unaccountable to anyone except themselves.In Nigeria, l ong periods of military rule have created problems of instability, uncertainty and degeneration on the political, economic, social and educational scenes. There are very many educational policies which are released in the form of decrees and edicts, but the policy implementation has been haphazard and quite unsatisfactory. Irregular and sudden changes in the government leadership result in good educational policies failing to be implemented in full or even started. In Nigeria there have been ten different governments since 1960, that is an average of one every 3. years. Many people have attributed the various crises currently plaguing the Nigerian education system to the poor and unstable national leadership, the ripple effects of which tend to hit education programmes and institutions hardest. For example, every new government prefers to start its own projects rather than to complete those started by its predecessors. Consequently, in many educational institutions, from universitie s to primary schools, we  ® nd uncompleted and abandoned buildings and other facilities.To make matters worse for the Nigerians and the education system, military regimes have no de ® ned mandate and duration, so the military of ® cers appointed by their seniors to administrative and political positions see their appointments as temporary. They have no constituency and, invariably, they are posted to administer a state other than that of their own origin. With little commitment to the people or to the development of the education system, they cannot afford the luxury of long-term planning. In this operational environment, the education system becomes very vulnerable to crisis.Moreover, in the view of MacKinnon (1960), it is unfortunately true that the opportunities for patronage and, in the Nigerian case, ethnicity and religion as well, will usually bring into power and government institutions people who have mediocre ability or who are more concerned with self-interest than w ith the welfare of the public and the education system. Therefore, the administrative style of the military governments in Nigeria has created a context within which ordinary organisational and managerial problems in the schools quickly turned into intractable crises.The military governments appeared more interested in exercisCrises in the Nigerian Education System 89 ing absolute control over the teachers and students, whom they perceived as potential troublemakers, than in intervening in educational problems which could not be settled quickly with decrees and edicts. This was especially so where the release of funds was involved. Educational planning has been described as the application of a rational, systematic analysis to the process of educational development so that national education can respond more effectively to the needs of individuals and society.Coombs (1970, p. 15) opined that although educational planning per se is not the source of policies and decisions, people who have such responsibilities need it to guide them. It is the argument of this paper that because the Nigerian leaders did not pay suf ® cient attention to educational planning, particularly during the long periods of undemocratic non-consultative military governments, they could not keep the intricate internal and external relationships of the educational system in a reasonable balance.As there were rapid dynamic changes in the social and economic circumstances of the country, the education system could not adjust quickly enough and so the environment of crises became inevitable. Whatever educational planning existed in Nigeria during the unstable and tense years of military regime exhibited the characteristics which Coombs (1970, p. 19) described as focusing on the mechanics and logistics of education rather than on the needs of the students and society. Such planning was therefore short-term in outlook, fragmentary in its coverage, non-integrated and non-dynamic.Moreover, the so cial demand approach to educational planning was emphasised by various governments in Nigeria, both civilian and military, for political and propaganda reasons. Thus, for example, the refusal to charge tuition fees in the universities and the policy of establishing a federal university and a polytechnic or college of education in every state in Nigeria were politically popular but educationally and economically irrational decisions. The policy was made when there were only 12 states in Nigeria.Now that there are 30 states, with the military government in the process of creating more states in 1996, the funding crisis in higher education is being further aggravated. Any education system that emphasises growth and expansion without due regard to the development of reliable sources of funding, an adequate supply of trained teachers for different academic programmes, infrastructural facilities to accommodate natural and stimulated increases in school population and a dynamic economy to absorb its graduates from the schools is laying the seeds that will, on germination, create an environment in which all types of crises will ? urish. Such is the experience of the Nigerian education system. Funding and Educational Development We can examine the crises in Nigerian education from two broad perspectives. One approach is to look at different periods in the development of education in the country and the major crises that featured during each period. This method was adopted by Ocho (1995) when he grouped the crises periods as follows. (1) The crisis of irrrelevance, 1842 ± 1954. (2) The crisis of unequal expansion, 1955 ± 1969. (3) The crisis of unplanned expansion, 1970 ± 1983. 4) The crisis of  ® nancial inadequacy, 1984 ± 1994. In this paper, we shall adopt the second approach which focuses on the crises which have plagued a given period. Here, we shall concentrate on Nigerian education in the last decade and a half, 1980 ± 1995, a period that has created alarm among educational administrators, parents, teachers, students and even the international community. The crisis of educational funding is a fundamental issue because critical shortages of 90 C. C. Nwagwu  ® nance have affected the organisation and administration of education at all levels.The oil glut in the world market in the early 1980s led to a sudden decline in revenue from petroleum products which had accounted for approximately 80% of Nigeria’ s income from exports. The consequences were immediate. The free universal primary education (UPE) scheme which was started by the federal government in 1976 was hurriedly handed over to state governments and the poor ones could not sustain the programme. Bursary awards for student teachers were stopped and subsidised feeding for students in higher education institutions was also abolished.The chairman of the Implementation Committee on the NPE, Dr J. S. Sofolahan, summarised the situation when he said in his 1991 report t hat `The National Policy was conceived in times of oil boom, born in times of oil glut, and nurtured in times of economic depression’ (Sofolahan, 1991). Chuta (1995) said it was important to note that there was a decline of 6% in real gross domestic product (GDP) between 1980 and 1990 and he referred to this as bad for the future of Nigeria.In 1994, the Central Bank of Nigeria reported that the money supply, particularly by way of de ® cit  ® nancing in the economy, increased from 5 N 24. 3 million in 1980 to over 5 N 64. 9 million in 1990. This led to tremendous increases in the prices of goods and services. The Nigerian currency was seriously devalued from the naira to US dollar ratio of 1:1 in 1985 to 85:1 in 1995. Neither individuals nor the educational institutions could cope with the rate of in? ation. Worse still, the federal government reduced its subvention to educational institutions.For example, while student enrolment in the universities continued to increase, the government expenditure per student declined from 5 N 3085 in the 1980 ± 1981 academic year to 5 N 3057 in the 1984 ± 1985 academic year, in spite of rising costs and in? ation in the economy (Akangbou, 1986). In 1994 ± 1995, the government spent 5 N 5000 per university student, but the real value in terms of 1984 ± 1985 purchasing power was only 5 N 500. The management of the education funding crisis has been very unsatisfactory.Basically, the strategy has been to pass the responsibility for  ® nding extra funds from one tier of government to another, and to ask parents to pay fees where none were paid before or to pay more where government subsidies had formerly been provided. For example, the annual tuition fees in state-owned universities increased from an average of 5 N 1000 in 1990 to 5 N 3000 in 1993 and then to 5 N 7000 in 1995 ± 1996. At the secondary level, the tuition fees, even in states that had free secondary education in 1990, rose from an average of 5 N 300 in 1993 to over 5 N 600 in 1995 ± 1996.To help pay primary school teachers’ salaries which were owed several months in arrears, the federal government established the National Primary Education Commission by Decree No. 31 of 1988. This was later abolished by Decree No. 3 of 1991, but was re-established by another government by Decree No. 3 of 1994. Another strategy to address the education funding crisis was the merging of some federal universities. However, the succeeding government, for political reasons rather than to improve the sourcing of funds, demerged them in the late 1980s and they exist today as separate universities.For their part, some institutional authorities embarked on the retrenchment of staff and a reduction in enrolments. These administrative decisions associated with poor funding created problems and shortages in the educational environment. Crisis in Facilities Management The inadequacy of the infrastructural facilities to cope with the very rap id rate of expansion in student enrolment is a major source of crisis in the education system. There are two main reasons for this situation. The  ® rst is a high birth rate of 3. % per annum, thus providing a relatively young population, with 48% of the total population under 15 years of age. The second reason is economic depression and in? ation which have made it dif ® cult to build new Crises in the Nigerian Education System 91 classrooms, maintain the old ones and buy new equipment. In 1985 ± 1986, there were 12. 9 million pupils in the primary schools. The  ® gure for 1993 ± 1994 was 15. 87 million pupils. During this period, very few new classrooms were built to accommodate the extra 3 million pupils, hence there is a problem of overcrowded classroms today.It was the same story in the secondary schools in the period 1989 ± 1994 as Table I shows. TABLE I. Classrooms and enrolments in Nigerian schools Primary schools Secondary schools Year Classrooms Enrolments Clas srooms Enrolments 1989 ± 1990 375,726 12,721,087 76,819 2,749,528 1991 ± 1992 377,439 13,776,854 82,930 3,123. 277 1993 ± 1994 447,859 15,870,280 104,693 4,032,083 Source: Educational Data Bank, Federal Republic of Nigeria (1995). The crisis of the shortage of the infrastructure and facilities is felt everywhere and at all levels of the education system.The library facilities and books are grossly inadequate and so is the provision of classrooms, classroom furniture, laboratories and workshops. Hostels are not available in some institutions, including universities. Where some are provided, the rooms are crowded with students. Chuta (1995) observed that the hostel room shortage had become so acute that a black market racket had developed. In many institutions, buses for students have broken down beyond repair, while even electricity and good drinking water are not assured on a daily basis.To address the shortage of facilities, parents are often asked to provide chairs, desks an d beds for their children in the primary and secondary schools. The government obtained a World Bank loan to purchase books and instructional materials for use in the universities and for secondary schools the federal government secures equipment for vocational workshops under a bilateral agreement with some East European countries such as Bulgaria. Unfortunately, some schools cannot install and use these because they lack the necessary electricity and/or water for their operation, as well as trained technicians to manage and maintain them.The objectives of the NPE cannot be attained in the absence of teaching and learning facilities. Indeed, the environment of the critical shortages of the infrastructure, facilities and services is a frustrating and crisis-generating one. Crisis of Indiscipline and Standards Critics from within and outside education are often locked in serious controversy over whether the standards in Nigerian education are rising or falling because they cannot agr ee on what the standards ought to be in the  ® rst instance.However, Nwagwu (1990) argued that minimum standards in education should be perceived as yardsticks for responding positively to the challenges of relevance, need satisfaction, quality and excellence in the education system. Therefore, any system that fails to meet the population’ s expectations of providing the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes they require to solve individual and societal problems, has fallen below the expected standards. This, in the view of Coombs (1968, p. ), implies subjecting the input into the education system, the programmes and processes and the education system’ s outcomes or products to critical analysis. In this paper, the standards in Nigerian education have been deliberately linked to the various acts of indiscipline that appear to be on the increase at all levels of the system. Three 92 C. C. Nwagwu major acts of indiscipline? admission rackets, examination of malpracti ces and secret cult activities? will be discussed. Admissions MalpracticesDue to the limited vacancies and high demand for placement into secondary and tertiary institutions, there is an admissions crisis, which in turn has affected standards for two main reasons. Firstly, the quota system leads to the rejection of many brilliant candidates and the admission of weak ones because of their place of origin and the connections they have with important personalities. For example, the Federal Ministry of Education formula for admission into the federal secondary schools is as follows: merit 15%, states quota 40%, environment (catchment zone) 30% and exigency (discretion) 15%.The formula for admission into federal universities, polytechnics and colleges of education is merit 40%, states quota 30%, catchment zone 20% and discretion 10%. Secondly and arising from a down-grading of merit as a basis for admission, there is much racketeering during the exercise. Bribery, corruption and nepotism become agents that ensure admission of weak candidates and, at times, even of the bright ones who have lost faith in merit, fair play and justice.As a result of this situation, mediocrity and economic power take precedence over academic standards. Examination Malpractices Related to the admissions crisis is the desperate need to obtain certi ® cates and, consequently, the serious crisis of examination malpractices. Chuta (1995) identi ® ed four main strategies for cheating in examinations by the code names given to them in Nigeria by the students. (1) Life mercenary service by which an academically able person enters the hall and writes the examination for the real candidate. 2) Hall assistance whereby materials useful for answering the questions are brought into the hall with the collusion of the supervisors and invigilators. (3) Express service by which the real candidate sits in the hall while a hired person writes the examination outside and later smuggles the answer script s into the hall. (4) Super express service whereby the candidate is given the question papers in advance; the candidate writes the answers at home and then brings the scripts into the hall on the examination day.Alarmed by this development, the West African Examinations Council and other examination boards cancel thousands of students’ results every year and ban some schools from serving as examination centres. The students affected are expelled or suspended. The Nigerian Government also directed that offenders should face special tribunals under the Miscellaneous Offences Decree to ensure speedy trials and stiff penalties. An important step in solving the problem is to examine the environment that has created the need for these vices and crises in the education system.A proper analysis puts the blame on two main factors. One is the education system itself which puts so much emphasis on examinations. Worse still, the assessment of a student’ s performance is placed on just one examination either for admission to or for the award of a particular certi ® cate. Continuous assessment is still new in the system and it is not a part of the evaluation process for many examinations, such as the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Examination for entrance into the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. Crises in the Nigerian Education System 93Another factor is that Nigerian society, as in many developing countries, places too much value on the possession of certi ® cates rather than on the acquisition of requisite knowledge and skills. Many students, therefore, supported by their parents and teachers, even resort to criminal activities (including membership of secret cults) to pass the public examinations which will secure these cherished certi ® cates and help obtain admission into higher institutions or employment. The bogus certi ® cates which many people carry about are, in essence, a manifestation of what Dore (1976, p. ) refer red to as `the quali ® cation ± escalation ratchet’ and `the diploma disease’ . In Nigeria today, students refer to their educational certi ® cates as `meal tickets’ . Their main preoccupation is with how to obtain the certi ® cate and not with how much knowledge and skill they have acquired from the teaching and learning experiences in their schools. Unfortunately, the educational environment has not fostered positive attitudes towards the acquisition of essential knowledge, values and skills as a condition for deserving an educational certi ® cate.With educational institutions very poorly funded and with great shortages of quali ® ed teachers, instructional facilities and materials, very little effective teaching and, hence, learning, takes place in the schools. Confronted by employers and a society that are so certi ® cate conscious and competitive entrance examinations into higher education institutions, the environment for admissions racketeer ing, examinations malpractices and membership of secret cults is properly set. Personnel Management ProblemsAfter independence, there was an unprecedented popular pressure to build more schools and to train more and better teachers. The government responded positively to this social demand for education without serious regard to a cost ± bene ® t analysis of the implications. Consequently, between 1960 and 1985, primary school enrolment increased  ® ve times and secondary enrolment over 22 times, while higher education enrolment increased 84 times. As expected, there was also a tremendous increase in the number and quality of teachers.Part-time and sandwich in-service programmes expanded between 1985 and 1995 and led to many professionally trained teachers with the National Certi ® cate in Education (NCE) and  ® rst degrees in education. As a result of this positive development, salaries and allowances have also increased so much that some state and local governments can n o longer regularly meet their monthly obligations to teachers. With poor and sometimes unpaid teachers’ salaries and allowances, the environment has been created for frustration, indiscipline, a lack of dedication to duty and frequent strike action among teachers at all levels.Bereday (1969) remarked that `Financing education is an under-developed and unimaginative enterprise’ (p. ix) and this is very true in Nigeria. Today there are overcrowded classrooms, overworked and underpaid teachers and double sessions particularly in urban areas, yet there are many unemployed but well-trained professional teachers. Hardly a month passes without either a group of primary, secondary or higher education teachers being out on total strike action demanding improved conditions of service.This disrupts academic sessions, breeds ill-taught graduates and retards educational development in the country. The quality of all education systems re? ects the quality, dedication and motivation of its teachers. If teachers are well-supported by the government and society, they can use their commitment and teaching competence to help stem the crisis of student indiscipline and examination malpractices and to reduce the impact of the shortages of facilities and funds. 94 C. C. Nwagwu ConclusionThis analysis of the condition of education in Nigeria shows that unplanned and uncontrolled expansion of the system, inadequate funding, corruption and poor management are mainly responsible for the many types of crises there are today. The organisational climate is not conductive to serious teaching and learning. This is because over the decades, particularly under the military regimes, Nigeria has pursued the policy of an unrestrained positive response to the social demand for education.Thus, within the education system germs of problems had a fertile environment in which to grow until they have become chronic diseases that now threaten the very existence of the system. The Nigerian Government appear to have ignored the important advice given by educators such as Dore (1976, p. 8) that the effect of schooling, the way it alters a person’ s capacity to behave and do things, depends not only on what is learned, but also on how and why it is learned and the environment within which it is learned. There are a few general lessons to learn from the Nigerian experience.The  ® rst is the need for developing countries to aspire to be governed by stable, popular, democratically elected governments which can develop long-term as well as short-term plans for the articulated development of the nation and the education system. Military regimes are arguably incapable of providing such leadership because the hand-picked military junta does not have the training and experience nor the mandate, time and temperament to operate in this way. Secondly, good policies that are haphazardly implemented can create crises.For example, the quota system of admission came into bein g in Nigeria to meet the demands of the `federal character’ provision enshrined in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. This was designed to ensure an equitable representation of all parts of the country in all the federal institutions and the protection of minority and disadvantaged groups such as women. Unfortunately, the formula produced by the government of ® cials for the quota system neither ensures equity nor merit because of its defective formulation and worse still, its poor, dishonest and undisciplined application.The Nigerian experience highlights the point that supervision of the effective implementation of education policies is thus as important as their initial formulation. Thirdly, Nigerian experience suggests that the planning and management of the education system should be left to professional educators who arguably have the training, experience and, above all, the interest and commitment necessary to achieve the effective development of th e system and the attainment of both short-term and long-term educational aims and objectives.Fourthly, schooling is not synonymous with education and political leaders should constantly be made aware of this. Therefore, a situation in which young people are stimulated to go to school but are then denied reasonable facilities and opportunities for effective teaching and learning experiences is likely to lead to a crisis, not only in the education system but also for society as a whole. In Nigeria today, there is a crisis of con ® dence in the ability of the education system to tackle the many serious problems confronting it.Nigeria is at a crossroads where she must develop the courage to  ® ght problems which range from home to school and through society to government. The  ® rst major step is a recognition that the environment that has generated and supported the identi ® ed crises in Nigerian education must be changed if an operational climate that will ensure effective tea ching and learning is to be achieved. In the  ® nal analysis, however, what is needed most are more stable education policies which are faithfully implemented, better planning and the management and utilisation of whatever material and human resources re available for developing and maintaining an effective and ef ® cient education system. Crises in the Nigerian Education System 95 REFERENCES AKANGBOU, S. D. (1986) Financing Nigerian Universities (Ibadan, University of Ibadan, Faculty of Education Lecture Series, No. 2). BEREDAY, G. Z. (1969) Essays on World Education: the crises of supply and demand (New York, Oxford University Press). CENTRAL BANK OF NIGERIA (1994) Statistical Bulletin, 5(1). CHUTA, E. J. 1995) Money syndrome, paper presented at the 10th Congress of the Nigerian Academy of Education at Abuja (Abuja, November 9, 1995). COOMBS, P. H. (1968) The World Educational Crisis: a systems analysis (London, Oxford University Press). COOMBS, P. H. (1970) What is Educationa l Planning? (Paris, UNESCO IIEP). DORE, R. (1976) The Diploma Disease: education, quali ® cation and development (London, George Allen & Unwin). FAFUNWA, A. B. (1974) A History of Education in Nigeria (London, George Allen & Unwin).FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION (1990) Statistics of Education in Nigeria 1985 ± 1989 (Lagos, Government Printer). FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION (1995) Educational Data Bank (Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education). FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA (1981) The National Policy on Education (Lagos, Government Printer). FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA (1995) Educational Data Bank Statistics (Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education). MACKINNON, F. (1960) The Politics of Education (Toronto, University of Toronto Press).NATIONAL UNIVERSITIES COMMISSION (1993) NUC Statistical Digest 1988 ± 1992 (Lagos, NUC). NWAGWU, N. A. (1990) The Concept of Minimum Standards in Education. Second Nathan Ejiogu Memorial Lecture, Nsukka, University of Nigeria. OCHO, L. O. (1995) A history of the crisis in the Nigerian education system, in: O. ANIMBA, P. OMOLUABI & O. ANOWOR (Eds) The Nigerian Education System in Crisis, pp. 55 ± 63 (Enugu, Amazing Grace Publishers). SOFOLAHAN, J. S. (1991) Chairman’ s Report to the National Policy on Education Implementation Committee (Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education).

Art and Literature in Augustan Rome Essay

The beginning of this time period comes with the death of Julius Caesar and the rise to power of his nephew, Octavius. He was in the Second Triumvirate that was formed to maintain order in Rome. Octavian, Marcus Lepidus, and Marc Antony ruled formally unlike the informal triumvirate of Julius Caesar. The triumvirate set out to execute members of the conspiracy against Julius Caesar. In 42 BC, Brutus and Cassius were finally defeated. In the following years the triumvirate diminished. In 36 BC, Lepidus retired. Marc Antony began to have affairs with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. These affairs briefly came to a pause when Antony married Octavian’s sister Octavia. Marc Antony later returns to Egypt and marries Cleopatra. This causes Octavian and Antony to break out into war. He then takes his great-uncles name of Augustus and claims his leadership over Rome by defeating Mark Antony. Much art and literature was dedicated to the support of Augustus, which helped to bring together his empire. The Aeneid is an example of such propaganda in favor of Augustus, which people often find parallels between Aeneas and Augustus. In order for Augustus to maintain his newly gained power he uses such art and literature to influence his people. This form of media, which propaganda was a key part, plays an important role in his plan to maintain power. Augustus, known first to history as Gaius Octavius, was born in 63 BC. His relation to Julius Caesar comes from his grandmother Julia, who was Caesar’s sister. His great-uncle encourages him, for he sees talent in him, and even puts him in his will as his successor, along with three quarters of his estate. In 44 BC Caesar is assassinated and Augustus heads to Rome to pay his respects and to take his throne. He has to battle against Mark Antony, who was one of Caesar’s most trusted lieutenants. After ultimately causing Antony and his second wife Cleopatra to commit suicide, Augustus returns to Rome as the undisputed master of both east and west. Augustus ruled by patronage, military power, and accumulation of the offices. He was a sole ruler of Rome, which in result became known as the Roman Empire. The Senate became docile to Augustus and allowed him to have control. He gained the people’s support by funding various poets and artisans, who in exchange  glorified him in their work. This use of the arts, is example to Augustus’ use of political propaganda through art and literature. The writer of the Aeneid, Virgil, was a part of the circle of artists and poets supported by the wealthy patron Maecenas, who was close to Augustus. This gave him the freedom to spend most of his time writing. Since Virgil was writing under a patron close to the emperor, his stories had an element of political propaganda. He tied the life of Aeneas in the Aeneid, to that of Augustus, legitimizing the position of monarch and pleasing the emperor. This story was extremely popular in Rome and Aeneas was seen as the model citizen, so you can see why the connection to Augustus could work as a sort of propaganda. The Aeneid is interpreted by some, to validate the â€Å"golden age† and the restoration of the republic that Augustus had claimed to have done. It is a form of positive propaganda for Augustus, portraying him in a positive light for all of Rome to read. The most obvious connection between Aeneas and Augustus was their roles as founders. Aeneas founded the Roman Empire in the Aeneid and Augustus re-founded the empire after it had begun to fall apart after Caesar’s assassination and the subsequent battle for total power. In Book Six, Aeneas is shown a prophecy of the coming greatness of Rome, in a clear reference to Augustus’ rule. Another example is that the poem also served in Augustus’s attempts to re-introduce Roman values into Roman society, including reverence for the gods. Aeneas continually showed reverence to the gods, just as he did when he left Dido because it was the god’s will. The poem continues to reflect these ideals by portraying Aeneas not as a man motivated by personal gain, but a man motivated by his love and loyalty to his country, people and gods. For Romans the Aeneid is seen as something mystical, which it may be, but for Augustus it is just another example of his use of literature and art as propaganda. Augustus also united the Empire through his use of the arts as a form of self-promotion and to promote the themes of his administration, such as peace, allegiance to Rome, and respect for tradition. He visually improved the city by constructing new buildings that were worthy of the powerful Empire. He made art into the materialization of Roman government which was an idea continued by his descendants and was declared a god. He knew that he  had to portray his greatness in all the aspects of his subjects’ lives, including the arts. Three examples of such art are the Ara Pacis, the Temple of Mars, and the Res Gestae Divi Augustus. The Ara Pacis was made to honor the triumphal return from Spain and Gaul of Augustus and to celebrate the peace established by his victories. The Temple of Mars was constructed in Rome, to give thanks to the god for his victory over the assassins of his adoptive father, Gaius Julius Caesar. The Res Gestae Divi Augustus, is the first-person record of Augustus’ life and accomplishments. It is to show the greatness of Augustus and how he wanted it to be portrayed to his Roman people. These three pieces of art were very important in helping Augustus maintaining his power. Augustus’ use of art and literature as propaganda to influence his people was his way of keeping hold of his power. He was aware, as example of his great-uncle, that keeping power as a Roman Leader wasn’t easy. Even from the very beginning of his climb to power, when he had to fight for his throne against Mark Antony, he realized that his reign would come with some struggle. Which is why once he obtained complete control he used the works of artisans and poets to pay homage to himself and to influence the people of Rome to see Augustus in a favorable light. Just as Virgil’s epic, the Aeneid was extremely influential, not only to the people of the time of Augustan Rome, but also to many generations afterward. Augustus’ support created a â€Å"golden age† of literature even if much of it was a sort of propaganda. It is easy to understand why many other monarchs would strive to be like Augustus and to immortalize themselves in the arts and literature of their time as he once did. For he was an outstanding military leader, an excellent overseer of many public works, as well as being the leader during the longest period of peace and prosperity that Rome has ever experienced. Not only did he do all of this, but he also was extremely successful in his use of art and literature propaganda to influence the people around him. It not only gained him the support of the people of Rome, but it helped to unite his empire, as well as allowing him to live forever, not in a human body, but in the threads and strokes of all the works dedicated to him.

Games & Leisure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Games & Leisure - Essay Example First, groups can pass on their cultural practices from one generation to the next through leisure activity. Elders in Aboriginal culture often teach special skills and the old ways to their children and grandchildren through leisure. Second, the use of leisure as a renewal of cultural practice can also lead to healing so often referred to by Aboriginal people. Aboriginal communities are often inflicted with many addictions and negative behaviors which have threatened their actual survival. Leisure has been used as a forum through which healing takes place, especially among the youth. Third, leisure activity can be used as an agent of interface between one culture and another. For example, ice hockey in Canada is often used by Aboriginal people to enter and learn the rules of the dominant culture. Additionally, these leisure activities are often a means for two cultures to interact and stereotypes can be broken down as a result of this contact. â€Å" (Reid and Welke) Historical evidence suggests that the sports and recreational activities are human activities which developed as men evolved with the passage of time. It is often argued that while defining a culture whether the play and recreational activities should become part of the culture or not. Culture is often been described as the expression of human behavior in its different modes of living and thinking and its every day activities therefore with that domain play and leisure activities are often considered as part of the culture. (Nakornkhet). However as the human evolution took place, the form of play and leisure started to differ according to the various cultures and communities within which different classes of human beings started to live. It was because of this reason that the different cultures evolved different kinds of play and leisure activities of their own. This work will undertake to study the play and leisure activities within Asian cultures however before discussing the issue a theoretical

HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

HRM - Essay Example It seems that appropriate HR practices need to be introduced for help the firm to stabilize its performance towards its rivals. The above problem is explored in this paper; HR tools and practices are suggested for the limitation of the firm’s HR challenges, as described above. It is concluded that strategies, like the HR audit and the HR benchmark could significantly help towards the limitation of the firm’s HR gaps. However, it would be necessary that these plans are appropriately monitored in all their phases; the hiring of employees and the training of existing staff should become indispensable elements of the firm’s HR strategy. 1. So far, GS Plumbing has not conducted a formal audit of the HR function. Why would this activity be useful and who should be involved? Through the case study it is made clear that GS Plumbing faces a series of HR management problems. Alan, as the firm’s HR manager has the responsibility for the appropriate handling of all re levant problems. As revealed through the case study, Alan is willing to develop the firm’s HR policies. However, delays occur in regard to the achievement of this target. These delays are partially related to the following fact: Alan has to work on administrative tasks that would be normally handled by other members of the staff – referring especially to Gail and Jane. ... At the same time, problems like increased absence from work, low employee performance (resulted to increased customer complaints), lack of appropriate training of new staff and luck of trust across the organization need to be appropriately addressed. A solution should be also identified in order to keep existing staff motivated – periodically employees leave the company for the competitors. The HR audit could help to identify all failures in gaps in the firm’s HR policies, helping the firm’s senior managers to understand how ‘HR policies could contribute to the organizational success’ (Mathis and Jackson 2008, 62). Moreover, it could help to locate a series of appropriate solutions. In accordance with Phillips (1996) the HR audit function can help to identify the effectiveness of the firm’s HR policies, reviewing all areas of HR function, including the hiring, training and remuneration processes and policies of the organization (Phillips 1996, 37). At this point, it should be noted that the requirements of HR audit, can be many, including legal, technical and managerial issues (Storey 2009). The HR audit in GS plumbing could be based on a survey. The use of alternative method of HR audit, such as the interviews could be also used (Phillips 1996, 37), in case that the firm’s technical staff would agree with this strategy. Alan would be the most appropriate person to develop the HR audit across the organization knowing well all details related to the firm’s operations but also the challenges that the firm has to face within its market. 2. Unplanned absence of employees is a particular issue at GS Plumbing. Develop a process to address this issue. Since the unplanned absence of

Describe the function of tolc gene in salmonella and how this function Essay

Describe the function of tolc gene in salmonella and how this function may relate to intracellular pathogenisis in this organism - Essay Example Other substances that are secreted by TolC gene include macrobiotic solvents, and a number of antiseptic peptides (Tegos and Mylonakis, 2012). TolC functions hand in hand with other internal casing mediums in a bid to expunge unwanted elements. Research done over the recent past have posited that a number of mechanisms accountable for dissipating noxious substances from the E. coli cell requires the presence of TolC in order to function properly (Yu, Zhang and Brown, 2013). This function directly relates to the intracellular pathogenesis in salmonella. According to Toone, (2011), the absence of TolC in salmonella as a result of its removal elevates the level of defencelessness or vulnerability of salmonella to the various agents that exterminates or eradicates bacteria, viruses, and other germs, and also chemical composites. It is however important to elucidate the fact that in salmonella, TolC relies on other mechanisms for accountable for the removal of noxious substances from the cells. According to Horiyama, Yamagichi and Nishino (2010), these other mechanisms include "AcrAB, AcrD, AcrEF, MdtABC, MdsAB, EmrAB, and MdfA, MacAB, and MdtK" (p. 1372). In a nutshell, the function of the TolC gene in salmonella is aiding in the secretion of noxious substances from the cells of

Postcolonial Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Postcolonial Development - Essay Example Development theories attempt to explain the changes in societies and to provide the tools that can be applied to societies to move them to a better situation or one that is thought to be a better situation. Development has always had an economic connotation, as the Gross National Product (GNP) of the country has been historically used as a measure for growth and development. During the 1950s and 1960s, development initiatives assumed that the "successful methods, techniques, and ways of solving problems and delivering services in the U.S. or other economically advanced countries would prove equally successful in the developing nations." [Rondinelli, Dennis A. et al] So, from the very beginning the developed world and theoreticians progressed on the basis of 'direct transferability' of a successful process. During the 1970s, the European and American multinational companies made a foray into the developing world. With extending their own markets, these MNCs also threatened the indigenous industries in these countries. These events gave rise to two theories - the Dependency Theory and the Center Periphery or Metropolis-Satellite Theory. According to dependency theorists such as Paul Baran, Andre Gunther Frank and Fernando Henrique Cardoso, developing countries

Marketing as an Aspect of Business Research Paper

Marketing as an Aspect of Business - Research Paper Example In addition, the marketing function of business is responsible for developing long-term growth and providing and communicating value. Marketing is a critical aspect of business because it plays a critical role in improving the success of the business. Production, as well as distribution, depends primarily on marketing. However, it is common for people to consider sales and marketing as the same thing. The two aspects are quite different; marketing encompasses business processes such as promotion, public relations and sales. At its core, marketing is the process involved in the introduction and promotion of products or services into a market. On the other hand, sales is the act of purchasing or the transaction of customers buying the business’ products or services. Since the purpose of marketing is to make a business’ products or services widely recognized to the market, marketers are required to be immensely creative throughout their marketing activities. Within the mod ern, competitive business environment, getting a company’s products noticed represents quite a challenge to marketers. In terms of marketing strategy, businesses must be more focused on customers than the products (Christensen, 1997). While good and superior quality products are critical, the customer population still has their personal preferences. Therefore, getting repeat purchases is one of the hardest parts of marketing activities. Within the modern, competitive business environment, getting a company’s products noticed represents quite a challenge to marketers.... At its core, marketing is the process involved in the introduction and promotion of products or services into a market. On the other hand, sales is the act of purchasing or the transaction of customers buying the business’ products or services. Since the purpose of marketing is to make a business’ products or services widely recognized to the market, marketers are required to be immensely creative throughout their marketing activities. Within the modern, competitive business environment, getting a company’s products noticed represents quite a challenge to marketers. In terms of marketing strategy, businesses must be more focused on customers than the products (Christensen, 1997). While good and superior quality products are critical, the customer population still has their personal preferences. Therefore, getting repeat purchases is one of the hardest parts of marketing activities. Organizations use various forms of marketing approaches; however, all forms of mar keting aim at promoting product awareness to the entire market. Both online and offline marketing activities make it possible for a business to educate the market on its various products and services, which they can purchase. In addition to creating public awareness of a business’ products and services, marketing boosts a company’s sales, as well as revenue growth (Chernev & Kotler, 2009). Marketing is also important in building a company’s reputation; in order to be successful in the market, marketers typically aim at creating brand name recognition. This entails the technique through which consumers can easily associate the brand name with the logo, images or captions they either see or

Research proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Research Proposal Example Gulf areas in general, and Saudi Arabia in particular, are oil rich regions with the economy being driven by the large oil producing organizations. The required financial support for the SMEs, in order to strengthen their capability to further contribute towards the progress of Saudi Arabia’s economy, is however somewhat lacking. This is despite the fact that SMEs have evidently exhibited great developmental potential. The current research aims to determine the role that SMEs play in the development of Saudi Arabia; as well as to identify any governmental and other business organizations’ support provided towards sustaining continued operations and growth of SMEs in the region. This paper be presented with a brief overview of studies and researches previously conducted on the subject through a literature review of SMEs, in general; the financial support of the government for SMEs in Saudi Arabia; and the role that SMEs play towards the development of the country. The ne xt section would focus on the research questions and methodology, which would identify the required method which would achieve responding to the main concerns identified within the discourse. Likewise, any limitation to the study would be presented; prior to delving into the ethical considerations, as required. Finally, the time scales which detail the tasks and time frames for the specific research portions would be detailed in the last section. 2.0 Literature Review There have been several studies conducted on the subject that aimed to determine the role of SMEs, in general; and SMEs within the Saudi Arabia region. Their definitions would be explored, including financial support and development role in the economy of Saudi Arabia. 2.1 Small and Medium Enterprises Though SMEs exist all over the world and in large numbers, there is still no concrete definition for SMEs due to various practical reasons. Fu (2011) suggested that defining SMEs differs from country to country and are ba sed upon different variables such as number of employees, revenue, nature of trade etc. (Fu, 2011). Normally, the number of employees for SMEs are defined at less than or equal to fifty for relatively small organizations whereas for medium organizations, the upper limit of number of employees is normally between 100 to 250 (Capitas, 2013). Thus, SMEs were clearly classified according to the number of employees, as well as the amount of sales revenues generated within a stipulated time frame. Within Saudi Arabia, various organizations define SMEs according to different criteria and are followed by different organizations. There are two important criteria used in defining SMEs within Saudi Arabia. One criteria followed by the SME Development Center is to have less than or equal to 20 employees for small organizations and 21-100 employees for medium organizations. However, Shalaby (2004) concentrated on suggesting that different criterion is being followed by Saudi Industrial Developme nt Fun, and it defines SMEs based upon the revenue criteria

Implementation of the Basic Human Right - the Right for Freedom due to Term Paper

Implementation of the Basic Human Right - the Right for Freedom due to the European Convention of Human Rights - Term Paper Example The sublimeness of the idea of human rights is enough to capture the imagination and fancy of someone reflecting on the idea. But if one is pulled back into reality, with the grimness of the world that human beings have created for themselves, one then is thrust to the question of justice, of equality, of liberty, of rights, and of freedom.  Ã‚   And for this very reason, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom and its Eight Protocol came into inception.Europe ravaged by the atrocities of the Second World War had become the living witness of the extent of the possibility of the madness that could be inflicted by man to other men.   Thus, the man-made catastrophe – genocide - had spurred various leaders of Europe to come together and create a treaty.   A convention that will have for its undertakings â€Å"the promotion or encouragement of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction, and to take joint and separate action in co-operation with the Organization for the achievement of these objectives.† Together with this sad and horrifying experience of Europe is the fact that during the creation of the convention, Europe is â€Å"ideologically broken,† because during that time the â€Å"ideological conflict between Eastern Europe and Western Europe† was as real and as palpable as any concrete human experience.   With these two reasons acting as the primary motivators and ethos, Europe had created the European Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and its eight Protocols. This convention was â€Å"signed on November 4, 1950† and â€Å"entered into force on September 3,1953†.It is in this light that this paper is being pursued - to be able to shed light into the question of liberty as it is elucidated and clarified in the â€Å"European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms a nd Its Eight Protocols.†Ã‚  

Marketing in success of any business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing in success of any business - Essay Example As the world gradual growth to become a global marketplace, every business owner find themselves trapped in the sticky web of the market competition and getting out of it becomes a nightmare. However, any entrepreneur can play his or her cards well and emerge victoriously in this market issue by making use of the Holly Scriptures which will provide a guideline of marketing in a divine way. For centuries that have passed, the Christian bible has remained relevant in its teaching it is believed that whoever is guided by it is doing the right. Hence, the Bible has become applicable even in businesses since anyone transacting a business is expected to maintain some biblical ethics regarding the business. Therefore, this paper cannot be termed as complete without quoting some verse from these Holly scriptures called the bible. In relation to good marketing or advertisement, the bible states, â€Å"It is better not to vow than to make a vow and not fulfil it. Do not let your mouth lead yo u into sin. And do not protest to the temple messenger, â€Å"My vow was a mistake.† Why should God be angry at what you say and destroy the work of your hands? Much dreaming and many words are meaningless. Therefore stand in awe of God† (Ecclesiastes 5: 5-7). ... Finally, it is not in good order to cheat as one carries a burden of remembering what he or she said and may at long last lead to someone's destruction. The best advertisement is a pillar of any business success and no matter what one business is, having a well planned marketing strategy is of great significant value in business prosperity (Parente, 2004). If no advertisements are made for the products and services offered by a business, then it will be a tough mountain climbing game for ones’ business. Having the adequate knowledge about an effective business advertisement allows one to have good plans to pull off better results (Hackley, 2005). Firstly, in order to have an attractive and effective advertisement to a potential customer, the advertisement has to be memorable because if the potential customer can not recall what the advertisement was talking about or the product being sold, it becomes a waste of time and resources (Copley, 2004). The ability to remember about t he advertisement is usually the stamp of a result oriented advertisement. Secondly, the target population is another concept that a business should pinpoint as not everyone will be satisfied with goods and services produced by a company (Copley, 2004). This identification of a target group helps one to know where to do their advertisements (Hackley, 2005). Thirdly, an advertisement needs to be entertaining to the potential customer making them more attentive when watching the advertisement or listening to it over the radio. Lastly, the advertisement should be eye catching and focused to achieve the maximum attention from viewers thus requiring one to select the best design for the advert. A number of economists and other brainy fellows are not happy about advertisements with

Building a Coalition Essay Example for Free

Building a Coalition Essay PART I: Group Development At this point in time, the group is not yet even development. It almost seems as if all the individual organizations are storming because they want to make sure that each one of their opinions is heard, and they have control of the situation. No one wants to give up their own power or control. They have started off correctly as it is stated in the case that HR representatives from each organization have been selected to pick individuals from each organization that they feel will have the best impact and will be proficient leaders. The individuals chosen need to understand the stages of group development to help them get along and build a cohesive coalition. They will have to understand that the initial stage will be the forming. Here the newly formed group will test each other out. They will be able to get a feel for whom their co-workers are, what strengths and weaknesses each member has, and they will be able to develop a set of guidelines on what is acceptable behavior for the members. This is when they realize that they are no longer individuals representing just their organizations but instead their own group of people representing the students, and the students’ best interests with the backing of their individual organizations. They will lead into storming, where they will butt heads over power and what steps to take first. I believe here is where the true leader of the group will come out. It will be the individual who will be able to get the storming under control, get everyone to focus on what the main goal is and will help guide the group into the norming stage. In the norming stage, the main goal will be highlighted, the scope of the project defined, and a project plan created. Goals and guidelines will be set along with milestones and progress meetings. This is where they will start feeling like a group and start feeling like the project is finally moving along, and they all know how to get to the end. This leads us into performing, where  the team moves forward with the project working together and adjusts timelines as needed, resolving issues, and getting the job done. The final step is adjourning where the project will come to a wrap. The team will have a guidebook to help train any new personal that will be coming in and to help further build what they have already started. Knowing the steps of group development, help guide team members to establish proper guidelines not only for the project but for their own person behaviors. It helps members realize their own strengths and weaknesses and how the team can build upon those to make everyone successful. It also teaches the team how to function well together, develops relationships, and help motivate each other. All this is important in keeping the group motivated and keeping a positive dynamic to the group. PART II: Problem Identification The initial problem the group will face is for power. Each organization wants to make sure that their opinions are heard, and each feels that they are the most correct and should have the most power because they have the best influence and the students’ best interests in mind. Getting everyone on a common ground will be the hardest part since it seems that everyone thinks that they are right. Egos will need to be put aside and the storming phase may be longer than anyone would really like. As I had mention, before the true leader will come out of this phase and be the one that will be able to get a handle over the group. This will be an individual that everyone will respect and be able to relate to. I do not feel that there was much that there was much that could have been previously done in essence to understanding individual membership in teams to prevent the issue of the power struggle. This seems to be an ego struggle and also a difference of opinions. Everyone feel like they know what is best for the students and want to be involved, and have their opinion heard. In this case each organization is correct in their own way. Developing a coherent plan will be the biggest struggle incorporating everyone’s opinions as much as possible and trying to please everyone at the same time will be the additional struggle. The plan will have to be easy enough to follow so that it can be implemented as quickly as possible now and slowly change as time goes on. It will be easier for students to adjust to the smaller changes over a longer  course of time, than having their worlds turned upside down all at once. Also implementing changes a little at a time will help teachers to adjust and keep up their motivation and not be burnt out too quickly as students will be less resistant to small changes. This will also help with training new staff members as they come in. Having a handbook to guide further changes will help to continue moving the project forward in further years, and keep up with the progress of changed making sure the project stays successful and is not just a quick fix. PART III: Retrospective Evaluation The primary problems will be the power struggle and diversity will also play a role in this power struggle, and who relates best to the students. Also another issue will be making sure that the individual organizations feel that they are being equally represented, and heard. Each individual has their own struggles and comes from different backgrounds, we cannot judge what we have not gone through and cannot say how it affects that individual. Each member is here because they can relate to the students in their own personal way. We will need to put our own personal issues aside for the better of the students. Again the storming phase maybe long and members learn to work together and get over their difference. Each organization will have to give up power and the group that is made up of the representatives from each organization will have to identify themselves and their own organization not 3 individuals. Picking the team members will be the most crucial. The members cannot be egotistical but should also be respected members from their individual organizations. They will have to work together to come up with a project plan that they feel is the best way to proceed forward and will have to also convince their individual organizations and the community that they are making the best decisions. The pros of developing one main group to represent all and having this group break off and be seen as their own will help develop a stronger group dynamic between these individuals. The more they feel like a group the more they will be able to convince their individual organizations that they are being equally heard and that their opinions and suggestions are being incorporated into the overall plan. There may be backlash from the organization that they are developing on their own but this will need to be done in order to establish  authority, and not have individual organizations trying to go behind the backs of the group and work on their own. The biggest issues will be with establishing authority and making sure that each organization feel that is it being equally represented and their opinions are being heard and incorporated. PART IV: Reflection Diversity is an issue that is long over do in needing to be resolved. We as American’s need to embrace that we are a culture made up of many differences. We are the mute! This school and its new program for helping these students should be a great representation of that. These students will be representing our future and they can show that when differences are put aside and people work hard to work together they can be successful. Each individual contributes something and makes up for where the others lack. Difference should be embraced because they can show us a new way of thinking, acting, or doing. We should forever be evolving. My advice to program leaders would be to set your difference aside. Let us find what our common goal is and see how we can get their together. Ask what peoples string suites are, what their weaknesses are, and even what they would like to learn from this. This gives each member a sense of ownership to the project and will help keep them motivated by giving them their own individual goal to work towards succeeding. Giving them a their own sense of ownership to the project gives them a sense of pride to the project and will help lead them.

Effects of Health Inequalities on Infant Mortality

Effects of Health Inequalities on Infant Mortality Health and social policy assignment Introduction Longest (2002), the Health Policy Institute Director at the University of Pittsburgh in the United States, states that †Public policies are authoritative decisions made at the legislative, executive or judicial branches of government †¦ (which are) †¦ intended to direct or influence the action, behaviors, or decisions of others†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He continues, â€Å"When public policies pertain to or influence our pursuit of health †¦ then †¦ they become health policies.† (Longest, 2002). Longest vision of health policy is seen in United Kingdom as well as Europe in the same manner as â€Å"†¦ view of public health activism that sees little distinction between health policy and public policy as a whole† (Randall, 2000, p. 8). Petersen and Lupton (1996, p. xii) describe the new public health as â€Å"†¦ at its core a moral enterprise, in that it involves prescriptions about how we should live our lives individually and collectively†, which represent an approach that is much like Monnet’s plans for Europe (Fontaine, 1994, p. 12), which explains the European health policy as it exists today. As a unitary state, the United Kingdom’s central government directs most activity representing government functions. Social policy applies to those policies that governments utilize for welfare as well as social protection, the manner and ways via which welfare is devised and developed, and the academic study of social policy (Robert Gordon University, 2006). Social policy, in its primary sense is concerned with the welfare state and social services, and in its broader context represents the range of issues that extended beyond governmental actions, including the means that welfare is promoted as well as the economic and social conditions shaping its development (Robert Gordon University, 2006). William Beveridge offered the citizens of the United Kingdom â€Å"†¦ a blueprint for social advance and a modern caring state †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which would provide for citizens â€Å"†¦ from cradle to grave† (Randall, 2000, p. 5) which were foundations of the welfare st ate that Britain briefly embarked on after World War II that offered full employment, a minimum national safety net, free and equal access to health and education, and a state provision for welfare. The Beveridge Report aimed at the elimination what was termed the ‘five giants’ of want, ignorance, idleness, squalor and disease, which he believed â€Å"†¦ construed an investment to facilitate a healthier workforce that would be able to promote productivity† (Gormley, 1999, p. 31). Beveridge’s vision helped to serve as the foundation for the later development of the National Health Service. The National Health Service came into being in 1946 by the UK Minister of Health and enacted through the National Health Service Act 1946, the National Health Service â€Å"†¦ was created by a national consensus within Britain† (Rintala, 2003, p. 3). Prior to its creation patients in the United Kingdom generally were responsible for paying for their health care services with free treatment sometimes available at hospital that taught as well as charitiable hospitals (Gormley, 1999, pp. 14 – 21). As a country, the United Kingdom â€Å"†¦ has a long history of offering some form of assistance for the sick, destitute and poverty-stricken† (Gormley, 1999, p. 13). Evidence of the foregoing is found under the National Insurance Act of 1911 a small deduction was taken from wage payments, 4d, that was also aided by employer contributions, 3d, and the government of the UK contributed 2d (Spartacus Educational, 2007). Workers received free medical service as well as being guaranteed a payment of 7s per week for a term of fifteen weeks when unemployed that were paid at Labour Exchanges that also posted notices regarding job vacancies (Spartacus Educational, 2007). Aneurin Bevan is credited as being the architect of the â€Å"†¦ successful implementation of the National Health Service †¦Ã¢â‚¬  as a result of his â€Å"†¦ personal political skills† (Gormley, 1999, p. 36). The NHS today is Britain’s largest employer, and is managed by the Department of Health, controlling the ten Strategic Health Authorities which have the responsibility for overseeing National Health Service activities in specific areas (Bevan, 2006). The Strategic Health Authorities have the responsibility for the strategic supervision of the 302 Primary Care Trusts that oversee the general practioners and dentists, 29,000 and 18,000 respectively, along with the commissioning of acute services from the private sector and other NHS Trusts (Bevan, 2006). The National Health Services Trusts number 290, representing 1,600 hospitals, and also falling under the supervision of the Strategic Health Authorities are the NHS Ambulance Services, Care Trusts and Mental Health Services Trusts (Bevan, 2006). The National Health Services broad and comprehensive program(s) includes Special Health Authorities, Blood and Transplant, Business Services Authority, National Treatment Agency, National Patient Safety Agency as well as the National Insitute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Bevan, 2006). This document shall critically analyse the inequalities in health care services as it relates to infant morality in Northern Ireland. As of 2006, the infant morality rate for all of Ireland stood at 5.3, and in Northern Ireland stood at just under 6 in 2001 (Bureau for Vital Statistics, 2001) which is higher than the 5.1 for the United Kingdom, and a number of other European Countries (infroplease.com, 2007). The problem lies in the infant morality rate for children from the highly deprived areas who are fifty percent more likely to die in their first year than are babies from more affluent areas (BBC News, 2000). This is problematic in light of the provision for equal health care for all as mandated under the United Kingdom’s National Health Service. This examination of the health care system in Northern Ireland shall take into account why the infant morality rates are high as well as whether there are inequalities in the system and if so what they are and why they exist. The reason is to reach a determinatation as to the causes, and reasons for the higher infant morality rate as well as what is being done to reverse the occurance. The figures for infant morality in Northern Ireland have been showing a downward trend, yet the morality rates for infants from deprived areas indicates a mortality rate that is 50% higher than the overall average during the first year (BBC News, 2000). The signifacne of Tables 1 through 4 is to provide a foundational frameowrk from which to make comparisons of underlying reasons and facets attributing to higher infant mortality rates as a factor of inequalities to be discussed utilizing varied class, income, and other correlations. Table 1 – Neonatal Morality in Northern Ireland 1988 – 2003 (dhsspsni.gov.uk. 2004) Table 2 – Post-Neonatal Mortality in Northern Ireland 1988 – 2003 (dhsspsni.gov.uk. 2004) Table 3 – Infant Mortality in Northern Ireland 1988 – 2003 (dhsspsni.gov.uk. 2004) The preceding figures take on increased importance with regard to the nature of this examination when viewed in comparison to figures from other regions. Table 4 – Live Births, Stillbirths and Infant Deaths by Mother’s Country of Birth, 2005 (National Statistics, 2006) These figures represent the Northern Ireland population as a whole. An important facet in this examination is represented by economics. The region has a higher proportion of people that are receiving benefits for being out of work, large numbers who are not working and a larger population of low pay wage earners (Joseph Roundtree Foundation, 2006). In finding conducted by a study it was found that infants of lone mothers as well as those that belong to parents in manual social classes are of the highest risk regarding infant morality (Whitehead and Drever, 1999). They also found that the lives of babies has at the highest risk in lower income groups as tabulated by the numbers of live births, stillbirths, early neonatal, late neonatal and postnatal deaths for babies in all types of marriage and non-marriage circumstances (Whitehead and Drever, 1999). The ‘Black Report’ in 1980 presented the term ‘inequalities in health’ as a result of it uncovering the gap between the richest and the poorest concerning experiences in illness, life expectancy and accident rates (Unison, 2001). The broader context of inequality in health, which has bearing upon infant mortality rates is comprised of factors associated with access to quality services, along individual as well as group characteristics that can affect and or lead to unequal treatment and discrimination (Unison, 2001). The report by Unison (2001) also identified social and economic factors, broader economic and environmental societal conditions and risk factors that are a part of lower income lifestyles. These aspects directly affect not only the mothers, but also fathers of infants in that their personal health, choices before and during pregnancy may not constitute the best avenues to the development of healthy offspring. In addition the importance of prenat al care, treatments, diet, nutrition, exercise, abstinence from smoking, drinking, drugs and other damaging aspects is higher in the lower socioeconomic groups (Investing for Health, 2006). The report also drew attention to health inequalities as a factor of an individuals social class, gender, ethnic origin, religious beliefs, political opinion, marital status and sexual orientation that area aspects even though these discrimination potentials are addressed in Northern Ireland’s equality and human rights laws (Unison, 2001). The overall effects of the broader consideration, representing age as a facet in infant mortality rates is illustrated in the following Table: Table 5 – Standardised Mortality Rates for People Aged Under 75 (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) 1997 – 2001 1998 2002 The preceding clearly indicates the differences in mortality rates as referred to in the Unison (2001) study, as well as the underlying health / lifestyle aspects of smoking, drinking, nutrition, exercise and allied factors indicated by Investing for Health (2006). The Health, Social Services and Public Safety (2004) report indicated that life expectancy for mean and females in deprived areas represented 72.0 and 77.9 years as compared to the non-deprived males and females of 75.2 and 80.2 years. The preceding also reveals itself in infant mortality rates, as shown by the following: Table 6 – Infant Mortality Rates per 1,000 Live Births (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) The foregoing clearly indicates the vast differences as uncovered in the Unison (2001) and Health, Social Services and Public Safety (2004) reports where the infant morality rate in deprived areas is a staggering 23% higher. A factor in the overall causes and reasons attributing to higher infant mortality rates is also shown by the higher incidences of teenage pregnancy: Table 7 – Teenage Birth Rates per 1,000 Females Aged 13 – 19 (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) The preceding indicates a 70% deferential in2001, and 71% differential in 2002. Another factor in the higher deprived area infant mortality rates is immunization. Table 8 – Immunisation Uptake Rates, Children born in 1998 (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) Table 9 Immunisation Uptake Rates, Children born in 2001 (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) In seeking to equate the causes and reasons for the higher incidence of infant mortality rates in Northern Ireland as a result of socioeconomic class, and inequalities in health care, the facet of overall general admission rates for non maternity reasons represents a valid area to be explored. The rationale for the preceding is to seek to determine, in a general fashion, if the inequalities in infant mortality rates represents more of a factor of lifestyle, health and personal choices as opposed to inequalities in the health system with regard to treatment, discrimination and related factors that are much harder to prove as well as seeming less likely to be a broader system wide occurrence. Table 10 – Standardised Admission Rates (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) 2001 – 2002 2002 – 2003 From the preceding, the argument that inequalities in health care being available or offered to lower income or deprived individuals as a factor of race, martial status, or other discrimination aspects is not seemingly borne out by the above table. What this table does suggest is that there are increased health factors affecting this segment of the population that are more in keeping with poorer health lifestyle choices, nutrition, smoking, drinking and drugs. Further evidence of the preceding rational is supported by the waiting time for inpatient admissions that does not indicate a bias against lower income groups despite their higher incidence of health services utilization as shown in Table 11. And while the area of reference utilized for this aspect is not within the infant mortality confines, it does provide a general factor that does not seemingly support bias in treatment as a result of income, or social status. Table 11 – Waiting Times for Inpatient Admission Proportion of inpatient elective admission where the patient has waited more that 18 months, or 12 months for cardiac surgery (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) Further illustration that the health care system in Northern Ireland is not seemingly discriminating against individuals with a lower socioeconomic status, and or other facets of discrimination is indicated in the following Table: Table 12 – Median Ambulance Response Times (in minutes) (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) In further analising factors representing potentially inequalities in health care that contribute to higher rates of infant mortality, the following Table indicates that there is a higher incidence of mortality in rural wards, which are more likely to also be lower income: Table 13 – Infant Mortality Rates per 1,000 Live Births (Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 2004) Further support for the contention that inequalities in infant mortality in Northern Ireland are seemingly more of a product of factors inherent in the lifestyles, living conditions, health choices and educational background of individuals from deprived wards as opposed to the NHS discriminating and or providing a lower quality of care was reported by the BBC (2000) which advised that the Institute of Public Health was holding a conference to examine ways in which the inequalities in health would be addressed, focusing on social circumstances to build more successful partnerships. One of the key aspects mentioned was that a survey found that babies born in deprived wards had a fifty percent higher incidence of death than those born in affluent areas (BBC, 2000). The report also indicated that males in the lower socioeconomic classifications have a higher incidence of dying younger and have higher chronic illnesses than males from managerial and or professional groups (BBC, 2000). The Institute of Public Health in Ireland (2005) in its ongoing concern regarding higher infant mortality rates in deprived wards has stated that poverty and educational levels of parents continues to represent the biggest threat in this area and that an improvement in poverty rates is an important area in reducing infant mortality. The consultation also pointed out that diet, nutrition, understanding of child symptoms and seeking medical assistance at the onset of problems along with better pre and post natal care are factors attributed to higher infant mortality in lower socioeconomic groups. The updated report found that the government of Northern Ireland has not provided core funding to broaden educational outreach programs aimed at educating mothers and families in the lower socioeconomic groups to the symptoms and dangers facing infants. It points to the lack of the preceding as a clear indication that the government does not consider this a priority (Institute of Public Health in Ireland, (2005). The consultation also advised that monitoring with respect to birth outcomes, vaccination rates, infectious diseases, institution and other facets need budgets to enable the health system to perform better follow up on children identified as living in or subject to these aspects to lower infant mortality rates. I t suggests that through increased partnership cooperation this could be obtained, however, that the commitment of addition funds and resources from the government is required in order to cause this to work. Internationally, the World Health Organization (2005) in its 56th Session held in New Caledonia stated that most child deaths could be avoided through the provision for more basic health care and detection, monitoring and follow up of pregnant mothers and newborns. The World Health Organization (2004) advises that to effectively reduce infant mortality, increased monitoring during the first month of life needs to be addressed as approximately 2/3rds of mortality occurs in the first month, with 2/3rd of that figure occurring in the first week. This holds implications for Northern Ireland in that an extended outreach, educational and monitoring program addressing the first month would effectively reduce infant mortality rates. Sweden, Norway and Demark provide an illustrat

The Connections In Physical Structure Information Technology Essay

The Connections In Physical Structure Information Technology Essay Two or more computers connected together and they able to share the data and other resources, then we can say that the computers in the network. Networks are two types Wireless Network. Wired Network. Wireless Network: wireless communication is one the fastest-growing technology. Connection using some telecommunication network whose inter connections between nodes is implemented without the use of physical cable. Radio waves are used to transmit the data between computes. Wired connection: wired connection means connection through a physical cable (back bone). There are two types of connections in physical structure. Point to point Multipoint. Point to point: The point to point provides a dedicated connection between two devices .the entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission the data between those two devices only. Multipoint: a multipoint connection is one in Network Topologies: The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out. Two are more computers connected through a cable to a link; two are more links from topology. Topology of a network is representation of the connection of all links and nodes together. There are basically 4 types of topologies are possible Bus Topology: In bus topology using a single cable to connect all devices. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. Devices are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the systems/nodes and main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travel along the cable, some of its energy is transformed in to heat. Therefore, it become weaker as it travels tap to tap. Because of that we have a limited number of taps. And have to maintain proper distance between those taps. The advantage of bus topology includes ease of installation. The cable which is used as a backbone is laid along the most sufficient path, and then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. Because of that, a bus uses the less hardware compared to other topologies like ring star mesh. The main advantage of this network is redundancy will be eliminated. The disadvantage of this network is it will be helpful if we have a limited number of devices. If more than few dozen computers will be added to the cable, performance will become low. If cable fails, the entire network becomes unusable. Ring Topology: In a ring network, every system will connect exactly with the two neighbors for communication purpose. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (clock wise or anticlockwise). If any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. A ring is relatively easy to install. To add or delete a device we require only two connections. Generally in the ring network, information will go every time repeatedly. If one device does not working properly it gives an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to problem and where it happen Anyhow, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring network a brake in the ring will disable the entire network. This problem will be achieved by switch cable of closing off the break. Star Topology: in a star topology each device will connect to a central hub. The devices are not directly connected with each other. The hub acts like a central server, if one device wants to send the data to another, its sends the data to the hub which then relay the information to another connected device Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of hubs. Thatà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s why it is very is to install and reconfigure. Less cable is needed to configure the star topology .and additions moves and deletions are very easy. Between the hub and device. If Tree Topology: tree network topology is a central node is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy. It is combination of the bus and the Star Topologies. The tree like structure will allows you to have many servers on the network and you can branch out the network in many ways. Levant systems in their own network and yet connect to the big network in some way. Mesh Topology: In mesh topology every device has a direct link to all devices in the network. If a device wants some data information will pass between those only directly, the main advantage of this topology is redundancy will be redjuced . Calcutation of how many nodes will connected to a mesh topology: In mesh each node must connected with another nodes (ie node 1 will connect to the n-1 nodes). We need n(n-1) physical links.however, If each physical link allows communication in both dirrections (duplex mode). We can devide the number of links by 2. In other words we can say that in a mesh topology , we need n(n-1)/2 Suppose if we are connecting 15 nodes in a mesh topology, then the number of cables required; N = n (n-1)/2 N = Number of cables = 15 (15 à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 1)/2 n = Node = 15*14/2 = 15*7 = 105 So the total number of cables required for connecting 15 nodes = 105. OSI MODEL: OSI model is established in 1947, (Open System Interconnection Reference Model) That covers all the aspect of network communications is the open system interconnection model. It was first introduced in 1970à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of OSI model is to show how a facility communication between the systems without changing their logic of understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, and transferable. It is developed as part of open system interconnection. In its most basic form it consists of seven separate but related layers. The OSI model is a layered framework for design of network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across the network. http://homepages.ius.edu/RWISMAN/B438/HTML/ch1_8.jpg Physical layer: physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical link. It deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of interface and transmission medium. This layer deals with the physical devices of the media being used to transmit the information. The physical layer notifies the data link layer that a frame has been received and passes it up. The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to next node. DATA LINK LAYER: The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility to a reliable link. The data link layer deals with providing one or more data link connections between two or more network entities. Data link layer performs the error check discards the frame if an error is detected. The responsibilities of the data link layer are Framing, Error control, Flow control, Access control. NETWORK LAYER: Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a data, possible across multiple networks. The layer provides switching and routing facilities. Creating the logical circuits for transmitting the data from node to node. If two systems are connected to a same link, there is no need of network layer. If two systems are connected to different networks there is often required the network layer to complete the transmission between sources to destination. The other responsibilities of the network layer are logical addressing, routing etc. TRANSPORT LAYER: Transport layer Manages source-to-destination message delivery in network. Provides reliable and sequential packet transfer through error recovery and flow control mechanisms Provides connectionless oriented data (packet) transfer. The main responsibilities of transport layer are service point addressing, segmentation and reassembly, connection control, flow control. SESSION LAYER: In some processes the physical, data link and network layers are not provide sufficient Service. The session layer is network dialog controller. The session layer responsibilities are synchronization and dialog control. PRESENTATION LAYER: The presentation layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. It masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems. The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression and encryption. Presentation layer will encodes and decodes data; encrypts and decrypts the data; compresses and decompresses data. APPLICATION LAYER: APPLICATION LAYER enables the user, access the network. Interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in network Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations application layer is responsible for providing service to the user.

Work Overload :: essays research papers fc

This paper will examine the common organizational stressor known as work overload. To begin, the stressor will first be defined and explained in terms of its causes. The paper will then focus on how to deal with the stressor by suggesting a variety of organizational approaches. Individuals who have specialized training in the field of work overload will then be introduced. Unique approaches designed by these professionals as a method of dealing with work overload will be examined. The paper will conclude by describing how scientific literature and research might be of assistance to the specialists.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Having too much to do with too little time to do it is a common perception in the workplace. This problem, often referred to as work or role overload, can be caused by a variety of factors. Things such as unrealistic deadlines, lack of appropriate break periods, and increasingly heightened expectations are common causes of work-related stress that exist throughout a wide variety of occupations (Shimazu & Kosugi, 2003). Other harmful factors that are related to work overload include rapid change, disordered multitasking, uncertainty, and interruptions during work. While it is possible for many hours of concentration on a well-defined job to have a positive effect on a person’s mental state, it is also possible for less than an hour of chaos in the workplace to have a hazardous effect on a person’s health (Zohar, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  People who serve as managers and supervisors are most susceptible to work overload. One potential explanation for this is the open-ended nature of the managerial job (Johns & Saks, 2001). The difficulties encountered when trying to juggle the demands of superiors with the needs of subordinates has the potential to provoke a lot of stress. Different personality types can also result in different ways of handling a heavy workload. For example, research indicates that introverts have notably different coping mechanisms for stress than extroverts (Dormann & Zapf, 2002). These mechanisms can vary in effectiveness when handling organizational stressors such as work overload. Another factor that relates to how people are influenced by heavy workloads is sex. For males, work stress is more strongly related to concerns about roles in the power structure of an organization, whereas female employees experience more severe stress when a conflict exists between job requirement s and family relationships (Vagg, Spielberger, & Wasala, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early warning signs of work overload include headaches, sleep problems, difficulty concentrating, short temper, upset stomach, and low job satisfaction (Dormann & Zapf, 2002).

The Case For Christianity, The Worlds Last Night :: essays research papers

I. Introduction II. Brief Biographical Information III. The Case for Christianity - Right and Wrong as a Clue to the Meaning of the Universe IV. The Problem with Pain - Divine Omnipotence V. The World's Last Night - The Efficacy of Prayer VI. Conclusion A Critique of C. S. Lewis "A Relativist said, 'The world does not exist, England does not exist, Oxford does not exist and I am confident that I do not Exist!' When Lewis was asked to reply, he stood up and said, 'How am I to talk to a man who's not there?'" - C. S. Lewis: A Biography Clive Staples Lewis was born, in 1898, in Belfast. C. S. Lewis was educated at various schools in England. In 1914, Lewis began studying Latin, Greek, French, German and Italian under the private tuition of W. T. Kirkpatrick. He then moved to Oxford where his studies were interrupted by World War I (1917). Two years later he was back in Oxford resuming his studies. In 1924, Lewis was "elected" to teach Literature and Language at Magdalen College, Oxford and remained there till 1954. During this time period in his life, Lewis wrote the majority of his work. Lewis moved to Cambridge for the remainder of his life teaching Medieval and Renaissance Literature.1 C. S. Lewis was a man dedicated to the pursuit of truth who" believed in argument, in disputation, and in the dialectic of Reason. . ."2 He began his pursuit of truth as an atheist and ended up as a Christian. His works the Problem of Pain and Mere Christianity dealt with issues he struggled with. Mere Christianity consists of three separate radio broadcasts. One of the broadcasts was titled The Case For Christianity. In The Case For Christianity, Lewis discussed two crucial topics in his apologetic defense of Christianity. They were the "Right and Wrong as a Clue to the Meaning of the Universe" and "What Christians Believe". This critique will address the first chapter. "Right and Wrong as a Clue to the Meaning of the Universe", can be broken into three parts. The first deals with moral law and its existence. The second addresses the idea of a power or mind behind the universe, who, is intensely interested in right conduct. Also that this power or God is good. Good as in the area of truth, not soft and sympathetic. The third point moves to Christianity, its attributes and why it was necessary for the long" round-about" approach .